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Paramecium some multi-cellular  sea stars (divided), some plants from a leaf cutting &ooBSexual reproduction involves the union of two parent cells, the offspring are not genetically identical to either parent. union of egg and sperm cell (also called gametes) &g3g3F9.2 !The Cell Cycle multiplies cells Most of the genes of a eukaryotic cell are located in the nucleus. Most of the time it exists as a mass of long thin fibers called chromatin (a combination of DNA and protein molecules). Prior to cell division chromatin becomes compact into chromosomes. &!!I!Human cells have 46 chromosomes. ""(The # of chromosomes is the same throughout the species. Before cell division the chromosomes duplicate forming two identical strands called  sister chromatid . The two strands are joined at the centromere. , & JTHE CELL CYCLE Some cells divide once a day, some more often, others less, some not at all. All cells undergo an orderly sequence of events called the Cell Cycle 90% spent in INTERPHASE, 10% in Mitotic Phase L  INTERPHASE the stage a cell carries out cell functions, it also increases # of proteins, organelles and its size during this phase. Three periods occur in interphase: S PHASE  (DNA synthesis)  duplication of DNA in chromosomes G1 PHASE - Gap before and after S phase basic cell function and increase in size G2 PHASE  gap, cell grows and produce proteinsDZhZ.Z0Z O MITOTIC PHASE (stage when the cell is actually dividing Two processes: mitosis - nucleus and duplicated chromosomes divide and separate evenly into two identical  daughter nuclei cytokinesis - cytoplasm divides in two-begins before mitosis is complete<9nI9 >R MITOSIShA continual process, biologist divide into four main stages: Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase PMAT 2=,c,Y S PROPHASEchromosomes become visible nucleolus disappears cell stops making ribosomes - nuclear envelope breaks down in the cytoplasm  football-shaped structure called mitotic spindle forms (grow from two centrosomes) chromatids attach to microtubles that make up the spindle which tug the chromosomes to the middle of the cellEZEPB    NU  METAPHASE !chromosomes line up in the middleV ANAPHASE sister chromatids separate proteins at the centromere help move the daughter chromosomes along the spindle microtubules toward the poles - Other tubules grow longer to push the pole apart,  W TELOPHASE begins when chromosomes reach the poles spindle disappears two nuclear envelopes form chromosomes uncoil and nucleoli reappear \ CYTOKINESIScytoplasm divides into two cells  occurs along with telophase animal cell  indentation (cleavage) occurs to separate cell plant cell --- cell plate forms inside the cell and grows outward<@@5 ]9.4 Cancer cells grow and divide out of control of-control cell reproduction results in a mass of cells called a tumor mass of normal cells  benign tumor (most of time not harmful) mass of cancer cells  malignant tumor \uhn _Cancer F malfunction of cell cycle  uncontrolled cell division Dangerous because- spread displacing normal tissue and can split and travel to other places (metastasis)(:i`Cancer treatment removed by surgery radiation or chemotherapy  to stop cell division Radiation  high  energy radiation  destroy cells Chemotherapy  drugs that disrupt different stages of cell division Many side effects&GGb9.5 rMeiosis functions in sexual reproduction Each offspring inherits a unique combination of genes from two parents <*H*HeMEIOSIS d- produces four cells with half the # of chromosomes -occurs in the sex organs (testes and ovaries) def Karyotype  A display of the chromosomes of an individual is called a karyotype Looking at a karyotype of a human cell would find: 46 chromosomes 23 homologous pairs (the 23rd pair called the sex chromosomes) sex chromosomes can be similar  XX (girl) or different XY (boy)&xx,:  gDiploid & Haploid Cells RHuman body cells contain 2 homologous sets of chromosomes 2(n) -2(23)=46 Diploid Sex cells (or gametes) have 1 set  one from each homologous pair  n =23 Haploid \TUK Lh%Haploid cells are produced by meiosis&&(When a haploid sperm cell (23) joins (+) a haploid egg cell (23) fertilization occurs and produces a zygote with 46 chromosomes " el!Meiosis occurs in two divisions: Meiosis I & Meiosis II 0  ,oBPrior to Meiosis I during Interphase the cell duplicates its DNA&C  p Meiosis IProphase I paired chromosomes consisting of four chromatids (called tetrads) Attach to a spindle crossing over can occur here (explained later) Metaphase I tetrads line up in the middle across the spindle N  2  2  2 qAnaphase I homologous chromosomes separate Telophase I chromosomes arrive at poles each pole now has a haploid daughter nucleus because it only has one set of chromosomes cytokinesis occurs  chromosomes are still duplicated n Z!ZZ ZZ !  ,. y ,v Meiosis IIProphase II  spindles form and attach to centromeres Metaphase II  chromosomes line up in middle of cell* 7wdAnaphase II  sister chromatids separate to opposite poles Telophase II  chromatids arrive at pole cytokinesis splits the cell - resulting in four haploid daughter cellsHg-g+ P    A{ 9.6Independent Assortment  chromosomes line up independently  resulting in 8 million combinations Crossing Over  Genetic RecombinationKB/?CDEGHKMNP Q T X Y Z[^acdijkmnrstuxy|}   0` z` ff[[ffRR|` py``Ӣ` ΂´vy` hk][^ROQGTП` N]1FS+BO)33` vs3db3` f` r3>?" dd@,?ldd@ n2 ld@n2`ld n?" dd@   @@``PR    @ ` `6p>> JBpޔ—(  T 8q  "8q  # lA] lW?y @? 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